Historical Context: Medieval England and Viking Raids

• Europe in 900 CE: frequent Viking raids across continent
• Paris raid failure led to Franks offering Vikings land in northern France
• Vikings established Duchy of Normandy, converted to Christianity, adopted French culture
• England faced Danish Viking conquests in 800s
• Anglo-Saxons eventually expelled Vikings but settlers remained
• Succession crisis: King died, unclear heir between two sons
• Edward married Duke of Normandy's daughter, had children
• Advisors warned of Viking settler uprising threat
• King ordered preemptive massacre of Viking settlers
• Danish king launched retaliatory invasion, conquered England
• Anglo-Saxons reconquered, Vikings reconquered again
• Royal family fled to exile including Edward (30 years in Normandy)
• Edward and brother Alfred attempted return, betrayed by Earl of Wessex
• Alfred killed with red-hot poker to eyes, Edward escaped to Normandy
• Edward finally recalled when Viking king died without heir

Edward the Confessor's Reign and Power Dynamics

• Medieval kingship required support from powerful nobles to maintain control
• Godwin: super powerful Earl who had betrayed Edward's brother Alfred
• Edward initially exiled Godwin but eventually reinstated him
• Edward married Godwin's daughter for political alliance
• Godwin died, massive fortune passed to sons who became Earls
• Harold Godwinson: new Earl of Wessex, Edward's brother-in-law
• Harold served as close advisor, proven warrior against Welsh
• Functioned as co-king due to his power and influence

The Three Claimants to English Throne

Harold Godwinson (England)

• Edward died childless on deathbed (possibly celibate for religious reasons)
• Harold claimed Edward designated him heir in final moments
• Rushed coronation same day as Edward's burial
• Claimed Edward renounced any previous promises to others

William the Bastard (Normandy)

• Father: Duke who secretly visited tanner's daughter
• Born illegitimate, became Duke at age 7-8
• Survived multiple assassination attempts in childhood
• 1051: Brutally suppressed rebellion in Alençon (townspeople insulted his commoner mother)
• Edward allegedly promised English throne to William
• Harold visited William, swore oath over holy relics supporting William's claim
• Possible coercion: William held Harold's family hostage during oath

Harald Hardrada (Norway)

• Lifelong mercenary warrior, fought across Europe
• Campaigns: Poland, Estonia, Mediterranean pirates, Holy Land, Sicily, Bulgaria
• Accumulated vast wealth from military service
• Became King of Norway after return
• Claimed throne based on agreement between previous Norwegian and English Viking kings
• Sought final legendary conquest to cement reputation

The Succession Crisis and Papal Blessing

• William gathered armies for English invasion
• Sought Pope's blessing to legitimize killing anointed king
• Pope approved based on Harold's broken oath over holy relics
• William now had divine sanction for conquest
• Northerly winds prevented William's invasion for 2 months
• Harold maintained army on south coast, eventually disbanded due to supply issues
• Returned to London, left coast undefended

The Norwegian Invasion

• Same northerly winds carried Hardrada's fleet to England
• Landed near York, defeated regional army led by northern Earls
• York surrendered to Norwegian forces
• Harold forced to rapidly reassemble disbanded army
• 4-day forced march north (exceptionally fast pace)
• Caught Vikings unprepared for battle

Battle of Stamford Bridge

• Armies faced each other across River Derwent
• Legend: single berserker Viking held bridge alone
• Berserker killed by English soldiers attacking from underneath bridge with spears
• Vikings formed shield wall but many lacked chainmail armor
• English victory, Hardrada killed
• End of Viking era in England

Norman Invasion and March to Hastings

• William's fleet: 700+ ships, 14,000 men
• Landed at Pevensey, established camp near Hastings
• Harold's exhausted army marched south immediately after Stamford Bridge
• Harold reached London, considered defensive strategy
• William forced Harold's hand by burning villages
• Armies met October 14, 1066

Battle of Hastings

English Position and Strategy

• English held hilltop defensive position
• Formed shield wall formation
• Strategy: exhaust Norman attacks, maintain defensive line

Norman Tactical Advantages

• Archers: sent volleys of arrows at English shield wall
• Infantry: multiple uphill assaults against English position
• Cavalry: mounted charges against shield wall defenses

The Decisive Moment

• Norman forces suddenly retreated (possible reasons):
  • Believed William killed
  • Lost morale against shield wall
  • Intentional deception tactic
• English broke shield wall, pursued retreating Normans
• Normans turned, encircled pursuing English troops
• Harold Godwinson killed (popular theory: arrow in eye)
• English defeat, William victorious

Norman Consolidation of Power

• English nobles initially reluctant to crown William
• William burned villages to force submission
• Coronation at Westminster: crowd cheered, William thought it was riot
• William burned down village in response
• Long campaign of suppressing rebellions across England
• Systematic replacement of English nobles with Normans

Norman Impact on English Language

Power-Related Vocabulary

• Norman words for authority: government, judge, castle, crown
• Norman terms considered more refined/posher than Anglo-Saxon equivalents

Social Class Distinctions in Language

• Anglo-Saxon: friendly, amiable, room, shirt, fair
• Norman: enter, chamber, purchase, blouse, beautiful
• Some Anglo-Saxon words deemed too crude for modern use

Occupational Terminology

• Anglo-Saxon: baker, miller, shoemaker (low-level trades)
• Norman: painter, tailor, merchant (skilled trades)

Food and Agriculture

• Anglo-Saxon farmers: calves, pigs, sheep (living animals)
• Norman banquets: beef, pork, mutton (prepared food)

Written Language Changes

• Anglo-Saxons couldn't write, language romanticized
• Original Anglo-Saxon: when, where, what (wnh pattern)
• Norman influence: swapped to hwn pattern
• Vowel changes: Anglo-Saxon "a" became "o" sound
• Example: "ham" became "home"

William's Personal Characteristics

• Illiterate in all languages (French, English, Latin)
• Earned title "Conqueror" after Hastings victory
• Previously known as "William the Bastard"